nigeria resistance to colonial rulenigeria resistance to colonial rule

In 1950 Aminu Kano, who had been instrumental in founding the NPC, broke away to form the Northern Elements Progressive Union (NEPU), in protest against the NPC's limited objectives and what he regarded as a vain hope that traditional rulers would accept modernization. The British, when faced with dissent, tended to grant political reforms in an effort to dispel the attractiveness of more-radical suggestions. As before, Aro merchants dominated trade in the hinterland, including palm products to the coast and the sale of slaves within Igboland. Dike, K. O. The colonial period proper in Nigeria lasted from 1900 to 1960, after which Nigeria gained its independence. Most internal problems were concealed, and open opposition to the domination of the Muslim aristocracy was not tolerated. The growth of Islam in pre-colonial Igbomina / Adesina Yusuf Raji. Some indigenous peoples, such as those in the Americas, were forced to move to reservations or killed outright by invading European colonizers. [57], From 1895 to 1900, a railway was constructed running from Lagos to Ibadan; it opened in March 1901. Although Azikiwe later came to be recognised as the leading spokesman for national unity, when he first returned from university training in the United States, his outlook was pan-African rather than nationalist, and emphasised the common African struggle against European colonialism. Central Africa to 1964. American president Dwight D. Eisenhower was represented at the independence ceremonies by Nelson Rockefeller, the . Among the problems needing attention before the British would grant full independence was the minorities fear of discrimination by a future government based on majority ethnic groups. Individuals could be fined or jailed for refusing to comply.[12]. Nigeria Table of Contents. In practice, British administrative procedures under indirect rule entailed constant interaction between colonial authorities and local rulersthe system was modified to fit the needs of each region. The Colonial Office could veto or revise his policies. However, it is thought that the Nigerians themselves were providing the . . These courts contained majorities British members and represented a new level of presumptive British sovereignty in the Bight of Biafra. Among the other major parties, the NCNC took fifty-six seats, winning a majority in both the Eastern and the Western regions, while the Action Group captured only twenty-seven seats. It was suspended in 1950 against a call for greater autonomy, which resulted in an inter-parliamentary conference at Ibadan in 1950. It, therefore, hired native intermediaries who could conduct diplomacy, trade and intelligence work in the local area. How did Algerias resistance to French control differ rom East africas resistance to German rule. European slave trading from West Africa began before 1650, with people taken at a rate of about 3,000 per year. Whereas Lugard had applied lessons learned in the north to the administration of the south, Clifford was prepared to extend to the north practices that had been successful in the south. A third of the people associated with an 1842 riverine expedition died. In her . [18], In 1807, the Parliament of the United Kingdom enacted the Slave Trade Act, prohibiting British subjects from participating in the Atlantic slave trade. The Governor was, in effect, the coordinator for virtually autonomous entities that had overlapping economic interests but little in common politically or socially. Examples of passive resistance include complex and/or costly application processes, a failure to provide guidance on how to request information, or enforcement mechanisms that are difficult to use. British colonialism created Nigeria, joining diverse peoples and regions in an artificial political entity along the Niger River. The British, like other newcomers to the slave trade, found . In all three regions, minority parties represented the special interests of ethnic groups, especially as they were affected by the majority. The political parties jockeyed for positions of power in anticipation of the independence of Nigeria. They never were able to elect sizeable legislative delegations, but they served as a means of public expression for minority concerns. In the Northern Region, the colonial government took careful account of Islam and avoided any appearance of a challenge to traditional values that might incite resistance to British rule. Revolts took place across Nigeria, but were most frequent in the Niger Delta. [37] Economically, local colonial administrators also pushed for the imposition of British colonial rule, believing that trade and taxation conducted in British pounds would prove far more lucrative than a barter trade which yielded only inconsistent customs duties. [11], By the 1880s, the National African Company became the dominant commercial power, increasing from 19 to 39 stations between 1882 and 1893. Britain annexed Lagos in 1861 and established the Oil River Protectorate in 1884. After the Napoleon war, the British tried to expand their colonial rule in Africa and began to establish trade tides with Nigeria in 1898. In 1894 the territory was redesignated the Niger Coast Protectorate and was expanded to include the region from Calabar to Lagos Colony and Protectorate, including the hinterland, and northward up the Niger River as far as Lokoja, the headquarters of the Royal Niger Company. Some of them also manned Company stations and served as District Agents.". The pace of constitutional change accelerated after the promulgation of the Richards Constitution. In the Eastern Region, appointed officials who were given "warrants" and hence called warrant chiefs, were strongly resisted by the people because they lacked traditional claims. In the north, the emirs intended to maintain firm control on economic and political change. Battle of Adowa (Ethiopia) 5. Officials of the Sokoto Caliphate considered these treaties quite differently; from their perspective, the British were granted only extraterritorial rights that did not prevent similar arrangements with the Germans and the French and certainly did not surrender sovereignty. The Central African Federation, embracing Nyasaland, Northern and Southern Rhodesia, was created in 1953 . The yoruba-Igbo rivalry became increasingly important in Nigerian politics. Another court was established in 1856 at Calabar, based on an agreement with local Efik traders which prohibited them from interfering with British merchants. 57-100 discuss issues of resistance and collaboration. The conference drafted the terms of a new constitution. Lagos became a major slave port in the late 1700s and into the 1850s. [49], Concrete plans for transition to Crown ruledirect control by the British Governmentapparently began in 1897. Britain withdrew from the slave trade when it was the major transporter of slaves to the Americas. Herbert Richmond Palmer developed details of this model from 1906 to 1911 as the Governor of Northern Nigeria after Lugard.[66]. Joining the Royal Niger Company in 1894, Lugard was sent to Borgu to counter inroads made by the French, and in 1897 he was made responsible for raising the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF) from local levies to serve under British officers. From 1886 to 1899, much of the country was ruled by the Royal Niger Company, authorised by charter, and governed by George Taubman Goldie. [73] In direct reaction to the epidemic, colonial authorities allowed African doctors and medical personnel to work with influenza patients due to the severity of the situation. Broadening political participation and expanding educational opportunities and other social services also were viewed as threats to the status quo. They caused major transformations in traditional society as they eroded the religious institutions such as human sacrifice, infanticide and secret societies, which had formerly played a role in political authority and community life.[26]. [67], This system, in which the structure of authority focused on the emir to whom obedience was a mark of religious devotion, did not welcome change. [17] Much of this oil was sold elsewhere in the British Empire. In 1916 Lugard formed the Nigerian Council, a consultative body that brought together six traditional rulersincluding the Sultan of Sokoto, the Emir of Kano and the Oba of Beninto represent all parts of the colony. The NPC, entering candidates only in the Northern Region, confined campaigning largely to local issues but opposed the addition of new regimes. PhD dissertation accepted at the Graduate Programme in History, York University, Ontario. Resistance to colonial rule took a number of forms, incrementally moving Nigeria toward independence. Both Africans and Europeans found illegal supplies such as secret stills, obtaining colonial liquor permits, and smuggling. Before the discovery of oil in 1956, Nigeria's resources were the main focus for the British Empire, and this was primarily because Nigeria was rich in agricultural wealth and other natural resources, such as rubber and copper. . In: Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs: (1999), vol. Their common denominators tended to be based on newly assertive ethnic consciousness, particularly that of the Yoruba and Igbo. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 8(04), 563. doi:10.1017/s0022278x00023909, This page was last edited on 30 January 2023, at 05:21. The Delta streams were called "oil rivers". The basic economic units in each town were "houses", family-operated entities that engendered loyalty for its employees. In Nigeria, the British colonial administration found perhaps the longest-lasting resistance movement. It was guerrilla warfare in the case of the Mau Mau Uprising in Kenya (1952-60) and Zimbabwe's war of independence (1965-79); it was all . [73] The colonial government would enact new legislation in reaction to the pandemic including, travel passes for individuals in the colony, increased usage of sanitary practices, and door to door checks on indigenous Nigerian households. Updated: 11/12/2021 Create an account In addition to their economic grievances, they also called for the end of the reform of the native courts. Vice consuls were assigned to ports that already had concluded treaties of cooperation with the Foreign Office. Missionary forces demanded prohibition of liquor, which proved highly unpopular. [9] Administration and military control of the territory was conducted primarily by white Britons, both in London and in Nigeria. They were the most politically conscious segment of the population and created the vanguard of the nationalist movement. Bolivian indigenous activist Ivan Ignacio, one of many indigenous activists at the second People's Summit in Qubec . Nigerians also requested more political representation. Awolowo had little difficulty in appealing to broad segments of the Yoruba population, but he worked to avoid the Action Group from being stigmatized as a "tribal" group. "Nigerian Forces Comforts Fund, 19401947: 'The Responsibility of the Nigerian Government to Provide Funds for the Welfare of Its Soldiers'. Its architecture was in both Victorian and Brazilian style, as many of the black elite were English-speakers from Sierra Leone and freedmen repatriated from the Empire of Brazil and Spanish Cuba. In fact, while the southern delegates pressed for The Kikuyu people of Kenya, like most Africans, were laborers with the women doing most work at home while the men found work across the country. Much of the human trafficking which occurred there was nominally illegal, and records from this time and place are not comprehensive. Three of these posts were assigned to representatives from each region, and one was reserved for a delegate from the Northern Cameroons. Bright Alozie. "The agents performed similar but more expansive roles as their Company counterparts. The southern protectorate was divided into two provinces in 1939Western and Easternand in 1954 they, along with the northern protectorate, were renamed the Western, Eastern, and Northern regions as part of Nigerias reconstruction into a federal state. colonizers and passive resistance by refusing to collaborate with the colonizers e .g. Catholic missionaries were particularly active among the Igbo; the CMS worked among the Yoruba. The company received 865,000 compensation for the loss of its Charter. Clifford emphasized economic development, encouraging enterprises by immigrant southerners in the north while restricting European participation to capital intensive activity. The transfer of responsibility for budgetary management from the central to the regional governments in 1954 accelerated the pace of public spending on services and on development projects. During the war, the colonial government earmarked a large portion of the Nigerian budget as a contribution to imperial defence. As a philosophical movement and critical . The rapid expansion in exports, especially after 1830, occurred precisely at the time slave exports collapsed. Early British Imperialism. Other firms applying for licenses were rejected. With one man in practical control of the Executive and Legislative organs of all the parts, the machine may work passably for sufficient time to enable the transition period to be left behind, by which time the answer to the problemUnitary v. Federal Statewill probably have become clear. In the year 1901, Nigeria officially became a part of the huge British Empire. It was not a walk over for the British to conquer Nigeria, some individuals and groups resisted the imposition of colonial rule. Britain also annexed Freetown in Sierra Leone, declaring it a Crown Colony in 1808.[20]. One continues to wonder how a national history could be attained A "house" included the extended family of the trader, including retainers and slaves. At that time many scholars believed that Nigeria was able to develop into a stable and fast-growing state due to its huge potential. In 1851 deposed king Akintoye of Lagos sought British help in restoring him to the throne. The British captured Kano in 1903. [73], Due to the failure of the sanitation officers in Lagos, the virus would continue to spread throughout the southern provinces throughout September and finally make its way into the hinterlands by October. A more representative system did not appear until 1946, when each geographic group of provinces had its own House of Assembly, with a majority of nonofficial (though not yet all elected) members; there were also a House of Chiefs and, in Lagos, a central Legislative Council. In consideration of the foregoing, the said National African Company (Limited) bind themselves not to interfere with any of the native laws or customs of the country, consistently with the maintenance of order and good government [and] agree to pay native owners of land a reasonable amount for any portion they may require. Indigenous responses to imperialism during the period of 1750-1900 varied widely depending on the specific group of people and the imperial power they were interacting with. Earlier elements related to this were its founding of the Sierra Leone Colony in 1787 as a refuge for freed slaves, the independent missionary movement intended to bring Christianity to the Edo Kingdom, and programs of exploration sponsored by learned societies and scientific groups, such as the London-based African Association. The Nigeria Regiment of the RWAFF, integrating troops from the north and south, saw action against German colonial forces in Cameroon and in German East Africa. We also understand that the said National African Company (limited) have full power to mine, farm, and build in any portion of our territory. ", Tamuno, T. N. (1970). The Action Group consistently supported minority-group demands for autonomous states within a federal structure, as well as the severance of a midwest state from the Western Region. Deadly battles broke out sporadically through 1906. The election of the House of Representatives after the adoption of the 1954 constitution gave the NPC a total of seventy-nine seats, all from the Northern Region. Inconsistencies in British policy reinforced existing cleavages based on regional animosities, as the British tried both to preserve the indigenous cultures of each area and to introduce modern technology, and Western political and social concepts. Amalgamation of Nigeria was envisioned from early on in its governance, as is made clear by the report of the Niger Committee in 1898. To be sure, there were widespread resistances against colonial rule, which include the 'Abd al-Qadir led resistance against the French in Algeria, the Asante King (Prempeh I) led revolt against British colonialists in Ghana, the Maji Maji revolt in Tanganyika, the Ndebele rebellions in Rhodasia, the Ijebu Kingdom and the Opobo resistances in . Ist October, 2010, marks The 50th anniversary of Nigeria's independence from imperial Britain. Ethnic and kinship organisations that often took the form of a tribal union also emerged in the 1920s. Falola, Toyin, Ann Genova, and Matthew M. Heaton. Britain annexed Lagos in 1861 and established the Oil River Protectorate in 1884. Native Administration was responsible for police, hospitals, public works and local courts. Sir Richmond Palmer, acting as Lieutenant Governor in the North, disagreed with Clifford and advocated the principles of Lugard and further decentralisation. Though the Europeans possess many considerable settlements both upon the coast of Africa and in the East Indies, they have not yet established in either of those countries such numerous and thriving colonies as those in the islands and continent of America. The NCNC backed creation of a midwest state and proposed federal control of education and health services. This scheme proved unpopular and confusing to many involved parties and was phased out. His mission failed, but Park and his party covered more than 1,500 kilometres (930mi), passing through the western portions of the Sokoto Caliphate, before drowning when their boats overturned in rapids near Bussa. [45], A campaign against the Sokoto Caliphate began in 1900 with the creation of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria, under the direction of Governor Lugard. Several churches were built to serve the Edo community and a small number of African converts. By. It backed Yoruba irredentism in the Fulani-ruled emirate of Ilorin in the Northern Region, and separatist movements among non-Igbo in the Eastern Region. In some instances, however, a double allegianceto the idea of sacred monarchy for its symbolic value and to modern concepts of law and administrationwas maintained. Consequently, he may well deserve the epithet of the "father of Nigeria", which historians accorded him. These schools would teach "the basic principles that would and should regulate character and conduct". NEPU formed a parliamentary alliance with the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC). . In these territories, violent resistance brought colonial rule to a close. vestigation of the forms of primary resistance by Africans to the impo-sition of colonial rule in the classic period of European imperialism, say from 1880 to 1914. Others refused recruitment into colonial armies or labor forces.Jun 20 2017. Critics, including representatives of the Middle Belt who resented Muslim domination, were relegated to small, peripheral parties or to inconsequential separatist movements.[85]. In the north, appeals to Islamic legitimacy upheld the rule of the emirs, so that nationalist sentiments were related to Islamic ideals. The protest began in the Initially, most palm oil (and later kernels) came from Igboland, where palm trees formed a canopy over the densely inhabited areas of the Ngwa, Nri Kingdom, Awka and other Igbo peoples. Among his leading lieutenants were Samuel Akintola of Ogbomoso and the Oni of Ife, the most important of the Yoruba monarchs. The southern nationalists were inspired by a variety of sources, including such prominent American-based activists as Marcus Garvey and W.E.B. The Royal Niger Company established its headquarters far inland at Lokoja, which was the main trading port of the company,[34] from where it began to assume responsibility for the administration of areas along the Niger and Benue rivers where it maintained depots. In some cases, British assignment of people to ethnic groups, and treatment based along ethnic lines, led to identification with ethnicity where none had existed before.[84]. Libyan Resistance. In the name of liberating the Igbos from the Aro Confederacy, the British launched the Anglo-Aro War of 19011902. In 1957, the Western and the Eastern regions became formally self-governing under the parliamentary system. [10], Following military conquest, the British imposed an economic system designed to profit from African labor. However, in October 1929 in Oloko a census related to taxation was conducted, and the women in the area suspected that this was a prelude to the extension of direct taxation, which had been imposed on the men the previous year. The similarity between the federal and regional constitutions was deceptive, however, and the conduct of public affairs reflected wide differences among the regions. The most important innovations in the new charter reinforced the dual course of constitutional evolution, allowing for both regional autonomy and federal union. If the emirs accepted British authority, abandoned the slave trade, and cooperated with British officials in modernizing their administrations, the colonial power was willing to confirm them in office. The war also made the British reappraise Nigeria's political future. The Colonial Civil Service used intermediaries, as the Royal Niger Company had, in an expanded role which included diplomacy, propaganda and espionage. Protestant sects had flourished in Christianity since the Protestant Reformation; the emergence of independent Christian churches in Nigeria (as of black denominations in the United States) was another phase of this history. [19] This scenario provided an opportunity for naval expeditions and reconnaissance throughout the region. History of Islam in Nigeria. The decrease in trade indirectly led to the collapse of states like the Edo Empire. Segments of the Yoruba community had their own animosities and new rivalries arose. Although this trade grew to significant proportionspalm oil exports alone were worth 1 billion a year by 1840it was concentrated near the coast, where palm trees grew in abundance. The early history of Lagos Colony was one of repeated attempts to end the Yoruba wars. In the South, only English had official status. Recovery came quickly and improvements in port facilities and the transportation infrastructure during World War I furthered economic development. 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